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  • Frustration with superuser.com user interface (please migrate this to "meta")

    - by Randolf Richardson
    Can someone please migrate this question to "meta" for me? I'm unable to post there while I wait for OpenID to fix my password problems. Thanks. I'm having problems with superuser.com's interface -- when I provide an answer to a question, sometimes the buttons get locked and then I find out that the question was migrated. Usually I can go back and copy-and-paste my answer at whatever site it goes to, but on occasion my answer is lost and I have to re-type it. This is very time-consuming, and makes it quite frustrating to use the system. In addition, I find that I'm wasting a lot of time dealing with having to re-register on the other sites. My suggestion is to not de-activate the "Submit answer" button but to just forward that along to the migrated site automatically, thus ensuring that answers that people put a lot of effort into don't get lost. Thanks in advance.

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  • Rails model belongs to model that belongs to model but i want to use another name

    - by Micke
    Hello. This may be a stupid question but im just starting to learn Rail thats why i am asking thsi question. I have one model called "User" which handles all the users in my community. Now i want to add a guestbook to every user. So i created a model called "user_guestbook" and inserted this into the new model: belongs_to :user and this into the user model: has_one :user_guestbook, :as => :guestbook The next thing i did was to add a new model to handle the posts inside the guestbook. I named it "guestbook_posts" and added this code into the new model: belongs_to :user_guestbook And this into the user_guestbook model: has_many :guestbook_posts, :as => :posts What i wanted to achive was to be able to fetch all the posts to a certain user by: @user = User.find(1) puts @user.guestbook.posts But it doesnt work for me. I dont know what i am doing wrong and if there is any easier way to do this please tell me so. Just to note, i have created some migrations for it to as follows: create_user_guestbook: t.integer :user_id create_guestbook_posts: t.integer :guestbook_id t.integer :from_user t.string :post Thanks in advance!

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  • BASH Scripting: Check If running with sudo/superuser, if not, dont run, return error

    - by EvilPhoenix
    This is something I've been curious about. I make a lot of small bash scripts (.sh files) to do tasks that I routinely do. Some of those tasks require everything to be ran as superuser. I've been curious: Is it possible to, within the BASH script prior to everything being run, check if the script is being run as superuser, and if not, print a message saying You must be superuser to use this script, then subsequently terminate the script itself. The other side of that is I'd like to have the script run when the user is superuser, and not generate the error. Any ideas on coding (if statements, etc.) on how to execute the aforementioned?

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  • Is the difference between superuser and serverfault basically when you can do a power cycle?

    - by wag2639
    Generally speaking, aren't there a lot of problems that can be fixed with just a simple power cycle? Especially with Windows, a reboot will solve the problems (at least temporarily)? So, would this be the difference between serverfault and superuser? Generally, where as a superuser might just be annoyed by a restart/power cycle, a sysadmin cannot because its a critical system or otherwise production box?

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  • Rails Model Relationship: Has one but also belongs to many

    - by Lowgain
    I have two Models, Modela and Modelb. Modela can only own one Modelb, but Modelb can be a part of many Modela's. What I have right now is class Modela < ActiveRecord::Base has_one :modelb end class Modelb < ActiveRecord::Base belongs_to :modela, :foreign_key => "modela_id" #might not make sense? end Not too sure about the whole :foreign_key thing I was doing there, but it was where it was when I left off. As I am trying to allow Modelb to be part of many Modela's, I don't want to add a modela_id field to the Modelb table. What is the best way to do this?

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  • Rails has-and-belongs-to-many form question

    - by swilliams
    Sorry for the semi-generic title, but I'm still pretty new at rails and couldn't think of a succinct way to put the question. I have a basic habtm model setup: a Project has many Resources and a Resource can have many Projects. I have the database and models setup properly, and can do everything I need to via the console, but I'm having trouble translating it all into the view. On the show view for the Project, I want to be able to create a Resource and automatically assign it to the current Project. Here's my basic html: <p> <b>Name:</b> <%=h @project.name %> </p> <h2>Equipment</h2> <ul> <% @project.resources.each do |r| %> <li><%=h r.name %></li> <% end %> </ul> <h2>Add A Resource</h2> <% form_for(@project) do |f| %> <%= f.error_messages %> <p> Resource Name:<br /> <%= f.text_field :resources %> </p> <p> <%= f.submit 'Create' %> </p> <% end %> Obviously, that form won't work, but I'm at a loss for what to do next. I've searched around for various examples, but haven't found one for what I'm trying to do here. One thing I've thought of was to change the form to be form_for(Resource.new) and include a hidden input of the @project.id. And then when the resource_controller handles the form, check for that id and go from there. That seems like an ugly kludge though.

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  • Using Superuser paths for specific topics

    - by Stenemo
    I have a very specific question, which I have not been able to find the solution I want to search Superuser and other websites using Google, but I want to limit it to a specific subject (e.g. the R programming language). Using Superuser paths for specific topics like "site:http://superuser.com/questions/tagged/r" Does not work, as can be seen when comparing searching using full path compared to searching entire website with more specific question. Also note the first hit being one step in the direction i want, but since this path itself does not hold the questions in its path it does not solve my issue. There should however be a better way to do this, e.g. by having a very specific Google search tag for the R programming language, which would have to be either in the path, on the webpage, or tagged differently. Seeing as Superuser has a good tag system I am optimistic that this can be used to solve my question. Is there a solution to this that always works on Superuser and similar sites?

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  • The report belongs to a package that is not installed

    - by user71700
    I have gotten the error message "The report belongs to a package that is not installed." Generally I would just ignore that since seemingly there is no problem except I got a crash report and then I said to report the problem and then I get this. Now, how can a package or program crash that is not even installed? Sounds a little paradox, isn't it? What should I do with this? Why does this even come up?

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  • How do i delete/close my account on superuser.com?

    - by Adnan
    I find serverfault.com more appropriate for my questions and because I want to have as limited number of accounts on the web as possible, I want to close my account on superuser.com. Can some one tell me how to do this. I was not able to find such an option on profile page.

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  • Exclude category from Wordpress home page unless it belongs to another category

    - by sirlancelot
    I have multiple users adding content to restricted categories (using RoleScoper) in my Wordpress setup that don't show up on the homepage (custom template with query_posts()). I'm looking for a way to "promote" the submitted content to the homepage by adding it to another category. My loop code looks like this: <?php query_posts($query_string . '&cat=-37'); if (have_posts()): while (have_posts()): the_post(); ?> This will exclude all posts in category 37. However, even if I add the post to a different category it still gets excluded. Is there a way to exclude a post if it belongs to just that one category?

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  • Dependency injection: what belongs in the constructor?

    - by Adam Backstrom
    I'm evaluating my current PHP practices in an effort to write more testable code. Generally speaking, I'm fishing for opinions on what types of actions belong in the constructor. Should I limit things to dependency injection? If I do have some data to populate, should that happen via a factory rather than as constructor arguments? (Here, I'm thinking about my User class that takes a user ID and populates user data from the database during construction, which obviously needs to change in some way.) I've heard it said that "initialization" methods are bad, but I'm sure that depends on what exactly is being done during initialization. At the risk of getting too specific, I'll also piggyback a more detailed example onto my question. For a previous project, I built a FormField class (which handled field value setting, validation, and output as HTML) and a Model class to contain these fields and do a bit of magic to ease working with fields. FormField had some prebuilt subclasses, e.g. FormText (<input type="text">) and FormSelect (<select>). Model would be subclassed so that a specific implementation (say, a Widget) had its own fields, such as a name and date of manufacture: class Widget extends Model { public function __construct( $data = null ) { $this->name = new FormField('length=20&label=Name:'); $this->manufactured = new FormDate; parent::__construct( $data ); // set above fields using incoming array } } Now, this does violate some rules that I have read, such as "avoid new in the constructor," but to my eyes this does not seem untestable. These are properties of the object, not some black box data generator reading from an external source. Unit tests would progressively build up to any test of Widget-specific functionality, so I could be confident that the underlying FormFields were working correctly during the Widget test. In theory I could provide the Model with a FieldFactory() which could supply custom field objects, but I don't believe I would gain anything from this approach. Is this a poor assumption?

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  • What can a Service do on Windows?

    - by Akemi Iwaya
    If you open up Task Manager or Process Explorer on your system, you will see many services running. But how much of an impact can a service have on your system, especially if it is ‘corrupted’ by malware? Today’s SuperUser Q&A post has the answers to a curious reader’s questions. Today’s Question & Answer session comes to us courtesy of SuperUser—a subdivision of Stack Exchange, a community-driven grouping of Q&A web sites. The Question SuperUser reader Forivin wants to know how much impact a service can have on a Windows system, especially if it is ‘corrupted’ by malware: What kind malware/spyware could someone put into a service that does not have its own process on Windows? I mean services that use svchost.exe for example, like this: Could a service spy on my keyboard input? Take screenshots? Send and/or receive data over the internet? Infect other processes or files? Delete files? Kill processes? How much impact could a service have on a Windows installation? Are there any limits to what a malware ‘corrupted’ service could do? The Answer SuperUser contributor Keltari has the answer for us: What is a service? A service is an application, no more, no less. The advantage is that a service can run without a user session. This allows things like databases, backups, the ability to login, etc. to run when needed and without a user logged in. What is svchost? According to Microsoft: “svchost.exe is a generic host process name for services that run from dynamic-link libraries”. Could we have that in English please? Some time ago, Microsoft started moving all of the functionality from internal Windows services into .dll files instead of .exe files. From a programming perspective, this makes more sense for reusability…but the problem is that you can not launch a .dll file directly from Windows, it has to be loaded up from a running executable (exe). Thus the svchost.exe process was born. So, essentially a service which uses svchost is just calling a .dll and can do pretty much anything with the right credentials and/or permissions. If I remember correctly, there are viruses and other malware that do hide behind the svchost process, or name the executable svchost.exe to avoid detection. Have something to add to the explanation? Sound off in the comments. Want to read more answers from other tech-savvy Stack Exchange users? Check out the full discussion thread here.

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  • Netbeans - *Easy* way to tell which Netbeans project a file belongs to

    - by sdek
    I was wondering if there is a way in Netbeans (v 6.8, or whatever) to have the editor tabs colored based on which project the file belongs to? Or some other easy way to distinguish which project a file belongs to. Basically my problem is that I have 3-4 netbeans projects, which all have a very similar code base (production version, staging version, development version 1, development version 2), and sometimes I have files open from a few different projects, and I get confused as to which project the file belongs to. And I know that you can hover over the tab and you can see which project it belongs to, but it would be fantastic if there was another, easier way to visually distinguish which project a file belongs to.

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  • Let a question always :include its author, how?

    - by Freewind
    class Question < ActiveRecord::Base belongs_to :author end class Author < ActiveRecord::Base has_many :questions end When I find some questions, I usually need to get their authors at the same time, so I use: Question.find(:all, :include=>:authors) But I don't write the ":include" part everywhere. I hope I can define the "include" somewhere only once, and when I find questions, the author will be automaticly loaded. Is there any way to do this?

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  • Why would Copying a Large Image to the Clipboard Freeze a Computer?

    - by Akemi Iwaya
    Sometimes, something really odd happens when using our computers that makes no sense at all…such as copying a simple image to the clipboard and the computer freezing up because of it. An image is an image, right? Today’s SuperUser post has the answer to a puzzled reader’s dilemna. Today’s Question & Answer session comes to us courtesy of SuperUser—a subdivision of Stack Exchange, a community-driven grouping of Q&A web sites. Original image courtesy of Wikimedia. The Question SuperUser reader Joban Dhillon wants to know why copying an image to the clipboard on his computer freezes it up: I was messing around with some height map images and found this one: (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Srtm_ramp2.world.21600×10800.jpg) The image is 21,600*10,800 pixels in size. When I right click and select “Copy Image” in my browser (I am using Google Chrome), it slows down my computer until it freezes. After that I must restart. I am curious about why this happens. I presume it is the size of the image, although it is only about 6 MB when saved to my computer. I am also using Windows 8.1 Why would a simple image freeze Joban’s computer up after copying it to the clipboard? The Answer SuperUser contributor Mokubai has the answer for us: “Copy Image” is copying the raw image data, rather than the image file itself, to your clipboard. The raw image data will be 21,600 x 10,800 x 3 (24 bit image) = 699,840,000 bytes of data. That is approximately 700 MB of data your browser is trying to copy to the clipboard. JPEG compresses the raw data using a lossy algorithm and can get pretty good compression. Hence the compressed file is only 6 MB. The reason it makes your computer slow is that it is probably filling your memory up with at least the 700 MB of image data that your browser is using to show you the image, another 700 MB (along with whatever overhead the clipboard incurs) to store it on the clipboard, and a not insignificant amount of processing power to convert the image into a format that can be stored on the clipboard. Chances are that if you have less than 4 GB of physical RAM, then those copies of the image data are forcing your computer to page memory out to the swap file in an attempt to fulfil both memory demands at the same time. This will cause programs and disk access to be sluggish as they use the disk and try to use the data that may have just been paged out. In short: Do not use the clipboard for huge images unless you have a lot of memory and a bit of time to spare. Like pretty graphs? This is what happens when I load that image in Google Chrome, then copy it to the clipboard on my machine with 12 GB of RAM: It starts off at the lower point using 2.8 GB of RAM, loading the image punches it up to 3.6 GB (approximately the 700 MB), then copying it to the clipboard spikes way up there at 6.3 GB of RAM before settling back down at the 4.5-ish you would expect to see for a program and two copies of a rather large image. That is a whopping 3.7 GB of image data being worked on at the peak, which is probably the initial image, a reserved quantity for the clipboard, and perhaps a couple of conversion buffers. That is enough to bring any machine with less than 8 GB of RAM to its knees. Strangely, doing the same thing in Firefox just copies the image file rather than the image data (without the scary memory surge). Have something to add to the explanation? Sound off in the comments. Want to read more answers from other tech-savvy Stack Exchange users? Check out the full discussion thread here.

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  • PHP/MySQL: Check if something 'belongs-to' something else?

    - by Nebs
    I have two tables: Stores and Items. The relationship is: Stores 1---* Items In PHP/MySQL what would be the best (fastest/simplest) way to check if a particular item belongs to a particular store. In other words given for example: $store_id = 1; $item_id = 12; I want to check if item 12 belongs to store 1 (and not some other store). I usually do a select on Items matching both the store_id and item_id and limit the results to 1. Then check how many rows (0 or 1) were returned with mysql_num_rows. Is there a better way? Update: Both tables have an "id" column. The Items table has a "store_id" column.

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  • How Can I Test My Computer’s Power Supply?

    - by Jason Fitzpatrick
    You’re concerned your computer troubles stem from a failing (or outright fried) power supply unit. How can you test the unit to be sure that it’s the source of your hardware headaches? Today’s Question & Answer session comes to us courtesy of SuperUser—a subdivision of Stack Exchange, a community-driven grouping of Q&A web sites. The Question SuperUser reader Sam Hoice has some PSU concerns: My computer powered off the other day on its own, and now when I push the power button, nothing happens. My assumption would naturally be that the power supply is done (possibly well done) but is there any good way to test this before I buy a new one? How can Sam test things without damaging his current computer or other hardware?   The Answer SuperUser contributor Grant writes: Unplug the power supply from any of the components inside the computer (or just remove it from the computer completely). USE CAUTION HERE (Though you’d only be shocked with a max of 24 volts) Plug the power supply into the wall. Find the big 24-ish pin connector that connects to the motherboard. Connect the GREEN wire with the adjacent BLACK wire. The power supply’s fan should start up. If it doesn’t then it’s dead. If the fan starts up, then it could be the motherboard that’s dead. You can use a multimeter to check if there is power output from the power supply. Adrien offers a solution for readers who may not be comfortable jamming wires into their power supply unit’s MOBO connector: Most well-stocked geek-stores sell a “power-supply tester” that has all the appropriate connectors to plug each part of your PSU into, with spiffy LEDs indicating status of the various rails, connectors for IDE/SATA/floppy power cables, etc. They run ~$20 US. With a little careful shopping you can even find a highly-rated PSU tester for a measly $6. Have something to add to the explanation? Sound off in the the comments. Want to read more answers from other tech-savvy Stack Exchange users? Check out the full discussion thread here.     

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  • Can a Printer Print White?

    - by Jason Fitzpatrick
    The vast majority of the time we all print on white media: white paper, white cardstock, and other neutral white surfaces. But what about printing white? Can modern printers print white and if not, why not? Read on as we explore color theory, printer design choices, and why white is the foundation of the printing process. Today’s Question & Answer session comes to us courtesy of SuperUser—a subdivision of Stack Exchange, a community-driven grouping of Q&A web sites. Image by Coiote O.; available as wallpaper here. The Question SuperUser reader Curious_Kid is well, curious, about printers. He writes: I was reading about different color models, when this question hit my mind. Can the CMYK color model generate white color? Printers use CMYK color mode. What will happen if I try to print a white colored image (rabbit) on a black paper with my printer? Will I get any image on the paper? Does the CMYK color model have room for white? The Answer SuperUser contributor Darth Android offers some insight into the CMYK process: You will not get anything on the paper with a basic CMYK inkjet or laser printer. The CMYK color mixing is subtractive, meaning that it requires the base that is being colored to have all colors (i.e., White) So that it can create color variation through subtraction: White - Cyan - Yellow = Green White - Yellow - Magenta = Red White - Cyan - Magenta = Blue White is represented as 0 cyan, 0 yellow, 0 magenta, and 0 black – effectively, 0 ink for a printer that simply has those four cartridges. This works great when you have white media, as “printing no ink” simply leaves the white exposed, but as you can imagine, this doesn’t work for non-white media. If you don’t have a base color to subtract from (i.e., Black), then it doesn’t matter what you subtract from it, you still have the color Black. [But], as others are pointing out, there are special printers which can operate in the CMYW color space, or otherwise have a white ink or toner. These can be used to print light colors on top of dark or otherwise non-white media. You might also find my answer to a different question about color spaces helpful or informative. Given that the majority of printer media in the world is white and printing pure white on non-white colors is a specialty process, it’s no surprise that home and (most) commercial printers alike have no provision for it. Have something to add to the explanation? Sound off in the the comments. Want to read more answers from other tech-savvy Stack Exchange users? Check out the full discussion thread here.     

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  • Easy text re-wrapping

    - by AmV
    I'm looking for a tool that allows me to easily re-wrap text (i.e. remove line breaks, but not paragraph breaks from a text selection or a text field), and that works in my browser (Chrome) and on Windows. Bonus points for anything that works outside the browser, and that works in-place (i.e. that doesn't require copy-pasting the text through a separate window or using something like http://www.textfixer.com/tools/remove-line-breaks.php) Browser extensions, GreaseMonkey scripts or applications that also work on Linux and/or Mac (or even better, that are multi-platform) are all welcomed. Here is an example of how the tool should behave. If I have the following in a text field: This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com I'd like to be able to, for example, select the text, and, with a keyboard shortcut, convert it to: This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com Thanks in advance!

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  • Easy line break removal from text fields and/or selections

    - by AmV
    I'm looking for a tool that allows me to easily re-wrap text (i.e. remove line breaks, but not paragraph breaks from a text selection or the current text field that is being edited), and that works at least with text fields in my browser (Chrome) and on Windows. Bonus points for anything that works outside the browser, and that works in-place (i.e. that doesn't require copy-pasting the text through a separate window or using something like http://www.textfixer.com/tools/remove-line-breaks.php) Browser extensions, GreaseMonkey scripts or applications that also work on Linux and/or Mac (or even better, that are multi-platform) are all welcomed. Here is an example of how the tool should behave. If I have the following in a text field: This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com I'd like to have an easy tool that allows me to, for example, select the text, and with a keyboard shortcut convert it to: This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com This is a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com. This a test for SuperUser.com. This is a test for SuperUser.com Thanks in advance!

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  • Can Google Employees See My Saved Google Chrome Passwords?

    - by Jason Fitzpatrick
    Storing your passwords in your web browser seems like a great time saver, but are the passwords secure and inaccessible to others (even employees of the browser company) when squirreled away? Today’s Question & Answer session comes to us courtesy of SuperUser—a subdivision of Stack Exchange, a community-driven grouping of Q&A web sites. The Question SuperUser reader MMA is curious if Google employees have (or could have) access to the passwords he stores in Google Chrome: I understand that we are really tempted to save our passwords in Google Chrome. The likely benefit is two fold, You don’t need to (memorize and) input those long and cryptic passwords. These are available wherever you are once you log in to your Google account. The last point sparked my doubt. Since the password is available anywhere, the storage must in some central location, and this should be at Google. Now, my simple question is, can a Google employee see my passwords? Searching over the Internet revealed several articles/messages. Do you save passwords in Chrome? Maybe you should reconsider: Talks about your passwords being stolen by someone who has access to your computer account. Nothing mentioned about the central storage security and vulnerability. There is even a response from Chrome browser security tech lead about the first issue. Chrome’s insane password security strategy: Mostly along the same line. You can steal password from somebody if you have access to the computer account. How to Steal Passwords Saved in Google Chrome in 5 Simple Steps: Teaches you how to actually perform the act mentioned in the previous two when you have access to somebody else’s account. There are many more (including this one at this site), mostly along the same line, points, counter-points, huge debates. I refrain from mentioning them here, simply carry a search if you want to find them. Coming back to my original query, can a Google employee see my password? Since I can view the password using a simple button, definitely they can be unhashed (decrypted) even if encrypted. This is very different from the passwords saved in Unix-like OS’s where the saved password can never be seen in plain text. They use a one-way encryption algorithm to encrypt your passwords. This encrypted password is then stored in the passwd or shadow file. When you attempt to login, the password you type in is encrypted again and compared with the entry in the file that stores your passwords. If they match, it must be the same password, and you are allowed access. Thus, a superuser can change my password, can block my account, but he can never see my password. So are his concerns well founded or will a little insight dispel his worry? The Answer SuperUser contributor Zeel helps put his mind at ease: Short answer: No* Passwords stored on your local machine can be decrypted by Chrome, as long as your OS user account is logged in. And then you can view those in plain text. At first this seems horrible, but how did you think auto-fill worked? When that password field gets filled in, Chrome must insert the real password into the HTML form element – or else the page wouldn’t work right, and you could not submit the form. And if the connection to the website is not over HTTPS, the plain text is then sent over the internet. In other words, if chrome can’t get the plain text passwords, then they are totally useless. A one way hash is no good, because we need to use them. Now the passwords are in fact encrypted, the only way to get them back to plain text is to have the decryption key. That key is your Google password, or a secondary key you can set up. When you sign into Chrome and sync the Google servers will transmit the encrypted passwords, settings, bookmarks, auto-fill, etc, to your local machine. Here Chrome will decrypt the information and be able to use it. On Google’s end all that info is stored in its encrpyted state, and they do not have the key to decrypt it. Your account password is checked against a hash to log in to Google, and even if you let chrome remember it, that encrypted version is hidden in the same bundle as the other passwords, impossible to access. So an employee could probably grab a dump of the encrypted data, but it wouldn’t do them any good, since they would have no way to use it.* So no, Google employees can not** access your passwords, since they are encrypted on their servers. * However, do not forget that any system that can be accessed by an authorized user can be accessed by an unauthorized user. Some systems are easier to break than other, but none are fail-proof. . . That being said, I think I will trust Google and the millions they spend on security systems, over any other password storage solution. And heck, I’m a wimpy nerd, it would be easier to beat the passwords out of me than break Google’s encryption. ** I am also assuming that there isn’t a person who just happens to work for Google gaining access to your local machine. In that case you are screwed, but employment at Google isn’t actually a factor any more. Moral: Hit Win + L before leaving machine. While we agree with zeel that it’s a pretty safe bet (as long as your computer is not compromised) that your passwords are in fact safe while stored in Chrome, we prefer to encrypt all our logins and passwords in a LastPass vault. Have something to add to the explanation? Sound off in the the comments. Want to read more answers from other tech-savvy Stack Exchange users? Check out the full discussion thread here.     

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  • How do NTP Servers Manage to Stay so Accurate?

    - by Akemi Iwaya
    Many of us have had the occasional problem with our computers and other devices retaining accurate time settings, but a quick sync with an NTP server makes all well again. But if our own devices can lose accuracy, how do NTP servers manage to stay so accurate? Today’s Question & Answer session comes to us courtesy of SuperUser—a subdivision of Stack Exchange, a community-driven grouping of Q&A web sites. Photo courtesy of LEOL30 (Flickr). The Question SuperUser reader Frank Thornton wants to know how NTP servers are able to remain so accurate: I have noticed that on my servers and other machines, the clocks always drift so that they have to sync up to remain accurate. How do the NTP server clocks keep from drifting and always remain so accurate? How do the NTP servers manage to remain so accurate? The Answer SuperUser contributor Michael Kjorling has the answer for us: NTP servers rely on highly accurate clocks for precision timekeeping. A common time source for central NTP servers are atomic clocks, or GPS receivers (remember that GPS satellites have atomic clocks onboard). These clocks are defined as accurate since they provide a highly exact time reference. There is nothing magical about GPS or atomic clocks that make them tell you exactly what time it is. Because of how atomic clocks work, they are simply very good at, having once been told what time it is, keeping accurate time (since the second is defined in terms of atomic effects). In fact, it is worth noting that GPS time is distinct from the UTC that we are more used to seeing. These atomic clocks are in turn synchronized against International Atomic Time or TAI in order to not only accurately tell the passage of time, but also the time. Once you have an exact time on one system connected to a network like the Internet, it is a matter of protocol engineering enabling transfer of precise times between hosts over an unreliable network. In this regard a Stratum 2 (or farther from the actual time source) NTP server is no different from your desktop system syncing against a set of NTP servers. By the time you have a few accurate times (as obtained from NTP servers or elsewhere) and know the rate of advancement of your local clock (which is easy to determine), you can calculate your local clock’s drift rate relative to the “believed accurate” passage of time. Once locked in, this value can then be used to continuously adjust the local clock to make it report values very close to the accurate passage of time, even if the local real-time clock itself is highly inaccurate. As long as your local clock is not highly erratic, this should allow keeping accurate time for some time even if your upstream time source becomes unavailable for any reason. Some NTP client implementations (probably most ntpd daemon or system service implementations) do this, and others (like ntpd’s companion ntpdate which simply sets the clock once) do not. This is commonly referred to as a drift file because it persistently stores a measure of clock drift, but strictly speaking it does not have to be stored as a specific file on disk. In NTP, Stratum 0 is by definition an accurate time source. Stratum 1 is a system that uses a Stratum 0 time source as its time source (and is thus slightly less accurate than the Stratum 0 time source). Stratum 2 again is slightly less accurate than Stratum 1 because it is syncing its time against the Stratum 1 source and so on. In practice, this loss of accuracy is so small that it is completely negligible in all but the most extreme of cases. Have something to add to the explanation? Sound off in the comments. Want to read more answers from other tech-savvy Stack Exchange users? Check out the full discussion thread here.

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